Aphasia's Effect on Human Connections

We each have great social and cultural associations with language. The act of communication itself is the most important aspect of language. First and foremost we consider language to be a mode of communication to express our thoughts, ideas, and desires. It’s something we pick up naturally from birth and something most of us take for granted. Language helps us to define ourselves. It helps us to articulate who we are and what we consider ourselves to be, and “it is the means by which we make sense of ourselves and our world, because it’s only by naming things that we can order then in ways that have meaning” (Holloway, Kane, Roos, and Titlestad, 2). Self-identity is of the utmost importance, and the main way we define ourselves is through the use of language. But imagine that all of a sudden you are no longer to communicate with those around you. Your speech, writing, and reading capabilities are all lost or greatly affected. This is the case with people who are affected by aphasia.

There are two main types of aphasia. They have to do with the understanding and production of language. Aphasia is “a general impairment in previously established levels of language functioning associated with localized cerebral pathology” (Eisenson, 1). The impetus of aphasia can be any number of things, but often it is the result of a stroke, traumatic brain injury or a brain tumor. Not only do these people experience a stressful and frightening injury, but there are also great long-term implications. All of a sudden their language capabilities have evaporated and these people are left at a major loss. While these they once possessed the language skills we all accept naturally, they are now affected by an acquired language disorder. Their lives are changed forever because this impairment extends to innumerable aspects of everyday life.

Two of the most prominent classifications of aphasia are Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia. They are each associated with different regions of the brain. The type of aphasia exhibited depends on the area of the brain injured, either by a stroke or through some other form of brain trauma. These two different types of aphasia each affect various parts of the communication process, either language comprehension or language generation.

While it may at first seem that those affected by Wernicke’s aphasia are less affected by their brain injury because they can spontaneously generate immense quantities of language, those affected by Broca’s aphasia are in a way better off. While the expression of language is much more labored and difficult for aphasiacs with Broca’s aphasia, these patients still posses the comprehension capabilities that give language its significance. Broca’s aphasia must be infinitely frustrating because of the inability to generate language. It maintains the more crucial aspect of the two parts of language use: language comprehension. Comprehension, rather than generation, is the more important skill because there are many forms of communication, but being able to understand language in the first place is a prerequisite to any language interaction.

In Broca’s aphasia patients often have difficulty speaking as well as writing. While they can comprehend language, it is the production of language that is difficult for them. This is why Broca’s aphasia is also called ‘non-fluent aphasia.’ In Broca’s aphasia language production is difficult because the part of the brain that is affected is “postulated to contain representations of the motor images of words or the memory is of the motor operations necessary to produce sounds” (Aphasia and Language, 14). These aphasias are unable to remember how to physically produce sounds in order for speech. For this reason it is also known as motor aphasia. Patients diagnosed with this form of aphasia are afflicted with very labored and halting speech, though they maintain most comprehension capabilities. They can understand what a person says when speaking to them, but they are unable to respond in a concise, distinct manner.

As stated before, Wernicke’s aphasia affects a completely different part of the brain, and thus impairs language in an entirely different manner. While in Broca’s aphasia patients can understand language, those with Wernicke’s aphasia have great difficulty understanding speech. Although they experience problems understanding speech as well as written language, they have no problem producing language. More specifically, “Wernicke’s area is the primary area responsible for storing the auditory representation of words, the auditory images, or the memory of how words sound” (Nadeau, Rothi, and Crosson, 14). They are affected by word deafness and word blindness, “difficulty understanding spoken words” and “difficulty understanding written words” (Murdoch, 59). Patients with Wernicke’s aphasia often speak effusively, but their language makes little sense.

Sometimes the speech of aphasics with Wernicke’s aphasia can even degenerate into simple jargon, “continuous but unintelligible speech, with little or no transmission of information” (Nicolosi, Harryman, Kresheck, 108). They add superfluous words into sentences and often the meaning is indecipherable and nonsensical. In aphasics who speak in jargon, they “(maintain) the structure if not the substance of meaningful speech…. the jargon patient feels that he is communicating satisfactorily and so does not show the halts, hesitations and corrects that mark standard aphasic speech.” These patients have no conception that their communication is unintelligible. They are under the impression that their meaning is being conveyed as they intend. For this reason, this diagnosis of Wernicke’s aphasia is made more difficult because these patients are completely unaware of their speech errors.

The fact that these aphasics are not aware of their speech errors means that there is no room for self-correction. Self-correction is the means by which aphasics strive to recover their language capabilities. Nevertheless, if you don’t know that there is a problem there is no way you can even begin to fix the issue. On the other hand, those with Broca’s aphasia are completely aware of the speech errors they make because they are able to understand the sounds they produce. As a result, those with Broca’s aphasia have a much better recovery prognosis.

Ironically, the characteristics of each type of aphasia are opposite that of the other. But clearly both comprehension and generative abilities are imperative in language use. In order to communicate we must both understand and be able to output. Communication is a multidimensional process. When one of these parts is disrupted the whole of a person’s communication ability is affected.

In spite of the fact that aphasia affects a person’s ability to express their thoughts and ideas, the condition does not always affect the thoughts themselves. Simply the expression is affected because an individual is unable to access the necessary language. In most cases it is not that the thought process itself is impaired, though some researchers have suggested that the functional intelligence of these patients is decreased with even slight gradations of aphasia. Still, they assert that when all conditions such as noise are controlled and the conditions are at their optimum, particularly recovered aphasics are able to function at or near their premorbid levels, “especially when they are not called upon to explain their thinking in language” (Eisenson, 9). They are able to think coherently, just not think about the way in which they think.

According to the National Aphasia Association, there are about 1 million Americans who are affected by one of the many acquired language disorders that are collectively known as aphasia. The majority is afflicted with aphasia as the result of a stroke. The next leading cause is closed head injuries. There are some types of aphasia that are temporary, but both Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasias are permanent. Speech therapy, especially if started within 6 months of the traumatic brain injury can help to reverse some of the effects of aphasia. This is the main way to cope with this decreased language capability. While the skills can never be fully regained, some recovery is possible, and there are measures that can help individuals utilize their remaining abilities for the purpose of communication.

Communication is so important because it allows us to convey thoughts, ideas, and desires. It is a method to relay meaning. But it is not sounds themselves that have meaning. We have assigned an arbitrary set of sounds and syllables to an object in order to name it, thus bringing order to our world. But it is not those syllables that create the significance; humans give the words their significance. The words are only important because of the meaning we attach to them. This meaning comes from society’s generally accepted understanding of the connotations of the word. Comprehension of the meaning attached to a sound is the very foundation of language. Those affected by Wernicke’s aphasia are lacking this elemental characteristic of communication. Speaking is only important if it conveys a message. Otherwise, if there is no content, then there is no point in creating sounds or phrases.

As previously stated, language significance develops from our ability to recognize the meaning humans have attached to words. While in Wernicke’s aphasia this is the part of the brain that is damaged, Broca’s aphasia generally preserves the aphasic person’s ability to understand. As a result, those with Broca’s aphasia are at an advantage on multiple levels. Not only do they understand the language itself, they are also aware of their language capabilities. They are able to understand that they make errors when they speak. This is not the case with those afflicted by Wernicke’s aphasia. Wernicke’s aphasiacs are incapable of realizing their speech errors because they cannot understand spoken language.

As you can imagine, aphasia is such a difficult condition because it affects a person’s entire relationship with the world. Communication is intrinsic to not only self-definition, but also in our society. Language allows us to make sense of our environment, through our reading and listening capabilities. Speech and writing are methods through which we can express ourselves. All of these abilities are imperative to the way we live our lives.

Beyond the societal uses of language, language also allows us to develop a self-concept. Self-concept is the way in which we see ourselves. Self-definition is important because it is the way in which we differentiate ourselves from the nearly seven billion other people on the earth. It allows us to feel that we are unique individuals and to think of ourselves as autonomous. In addition, it not only influences the way we see ourselves, but also the ways in which we are perceived. This perception of ourselves is central to the way we process information and communicate with others. Thus aphasiacs not only experience a loss of their abilities to communicate, but also experience a sort of identity crisis.

No longer are they able to interact in their traditional ways with their family and friends. These relationships are newly strained and the inability of expression often leads to depression and immense feelings of isolation. These feelings of aloneness can lead to low self-esteem. Low self-esteem, in other words a low self-concept, which can be further detrimental to language skills because it most often results in a lack of confidence in language ability.

Still, it is important to recognize that communication is not limited to the verbal transmission of information. While the ability to speak may seem imperative to communicate thoughts and ideas, nonverbal communication plays a significant role in the transfer of information, as well. Body language and facial expression say more than you may think. These secondary modes of transmission are considered to be universal constants of language. Even though two people may not speak the same language, oftentimes they can still understand the essence of what a person is trying to communicate through these alternative means.

As it turns out, while most communication proves difficult for people affected by aphasia, “aphasic persons are much better able to express their feelings, especially if they are strong feelings, than they are able to express or communicate their thoughts” (Adult Aphasia, 6). While some of this does have to do with the fact that in aphasiacs the brain is better able to communicate phrases involving personal pronouns, I believe that much of this is also conveyed through nonverbal means including gestures and facial expressions.

We generally underemphasize the importance of nonverbal communication. In fact, it has been estimated that “65 percent of the social meaning of a message in a face-to-face interpersonal communication is transmitted through nonverbal communication” (Applbaum, Anatoni, Hays, Jenson, Porter, ans Mandel, 110). While you can’t understand that a person is trying to communicate, “please pass the salt” through nonverbal communication, you can understand underlying emotional messages through nonverbal means. I would argue that these are often the more important messages anyway. While the more everyday, practical dialogue is incredibly difficult, the underlying sentiments of general emotions are much more explicit through these alternative means. We may simply be less aware of these nonverbal cues simply because we pick up on them naturally. We gather information in these ways subconsciously. They are skills that we learn naturally from birth, just as surely as we learn to speak.

There are generally considered to be four types of nonverbal cues which include proximity and space, body movement and facial expression, eye contact, and vocal cues such as tone of voice that are not out rightly stated in the spoken language. Of course lack of speech would affect which nonverbal cues can be utilized in communication, nevertheless, considering the amount of information we can garner from these unspoken signals combined, individuals are undoubtedly able to gain large quantities of information from even a few of these categories.

While these nonverbal signs should be present in both Broca’s aphasiacs and Wernicke’s aphasiacs, for this nonverbal expression of emotion is not affected, Broca’s aphasiacs maintain much over those with Wernicke’s aphasia. While they do have a clinically proven improved long term prognosis, their advantage stems from the very nature of the disability, not simply the long-term recovery outcome. As stated previously, the mutual understanding of words is what gives language meaning. Language in and of itself is inconsequential. This fact is demonstrated when you overhear people speaking a foreign language. While you may be able to guess at some of their conversation, most of the inferences you can make come from the nonverbal cues discussed above.

Beyond understanding of these nonverbal cues, comprehension of spoken language is most important, more so than random generation of nonsensical phrases and jargon. The reason stems from the fact that when you understand spoken language, as those with Broca’s aphasia can, you are able to respond to the environment and to external stimuli. Although they may not be able to respond in the usual manner, through speech, they still maintain this connection to others and to the world as a whole. Conversely, Wernicke’s aphasia does not allow for such interpersonal connections. The lack of verbal and written comprehension is truly isolating because they have no way to make these language connections with others.

Not only are they unable to make these connections from external input, but when they do strive to communicate and to produce language as they are capable their speech has little or no meaning because it is incomprehensible. Alternatively, while those afflicted with Broca’s have a difficult time speaking, when they do speak they can hear their mistakes and are thus able to self-correct, thereby making their efforts at language more significant and expressive. A study completed in 1991 and cited in Aphasia and Language showed that in Broca’s aphasiacs, “communicative competence can be present in spite of linguistic incompetence” (289). In the study a patient had been asked a series of questions about the events that had brought him to this aphasiatic state, specifically about his stroke, and with the help of his spouse who simplified and paraphrase the questions for him the patient was able to answer the line of questions. This would not have been possible for patients with Wernicke’s aphasia who are word deaf.

Both Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia are greatly debilitating medical conditions. These brain injuries have great long lasting impacts that primarily influence the ability to understand and articulate language, but have secondary effects including depression and decreased sense of identity. Aphasia is a devastating condition because language and communication are such integral parts of our everyday lives. While there are many forms of communication, including that which can be deduced from nonverbal cues, being able to understand speech in an inherently important ability that connects us to those around us. It is the meaning of words that is important, not the simple use of these sounds and phrases. The message imbued in speech is what is significant. For this reason those who are diagnosed with Broca’s aphasia are at a significant advantage over those with Wernicke’s aphasia. Not only has it been shown that they have a better clinical prognosis, but those with Wernicke’s aphasia are not able to understand the outside world because of their lack of language comprehension. It is these connections that Wernicke’s aphasiacs are incapable of, connections made through understandings established with those around us that give life purpose and value.

Works Cited

Applbaum, Ronald L., Karl W. E. Anatol, Ellis R. Hays, Owen O. Jenson, Richard E. Porter, and Jerry E. Mandel. Fundamental Concepts in Human Communication. San Francisco: Canfield, 1973. Print.

Brown, Jason W. Aphasia, Apraxia, and Agnosia; Clinical and Theoretical Aspects,. Springfield, Ill.: C.C. Thomas, 1972. Print.

Derlega, Valerian J. "Identities, Identifications, and Relationships." Communication, Intimacy, and Close Relationships. Orlando [Fla.: Academic, 1984. Print.

Eisenson, Jon. Adult Aphasia. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1984. Print.

Goss, Blaine, and Blaine Goss. The Psychology of Human Communication. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland, 1989. Print.

Goss, Blaine. The Psychology of Human Communication. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland, 1989. Print.

Holloway, Myles, Gwen Kane, Riana Roos, and Michael Titlestad. Selves and Others Exploring Language and Identity. Cape Town: Oxford UP, 1999. Print.

Murdoch, B. E. Acquired Speech and Language Disorders: a Neuroanatomical and Functional Neurological Approach. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. Print.

Murdoch, B. E. "Chapter 2: Aphasia Syndromes." Acquired Speech and Language Disorders: a Neuroanatomical and Functional Neurological Approach. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. Print.

Nadeau, Stephen E., Leslie J. Rothi, and Bruce Crosson. Aphasia and Language: Theory to Practice. New York: Guilford, 2000. Print.

Nicolosi, Lucille, Elizabeth ,. Harryman, and Janet Kresheck. Terminology of Communication Disorders: Speech, Language, Hearing. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1978. Print.

Welcome to the National Aphasia Association. Web. 07 Jun 2010.

Words as Placeholders

The word 'so' is gaining more and more prominence in our everyday language. While it was formerly a connective word, it is now being placed at the beginning of sentences. For example, Hillary Clinton said late last year, "So it's not only because we believe that universal values support human rights being recognized and respected, but we think that it's in the best interest for economic growth and political stability. So we believe that." The word 'so' is being used in many new ways. The author of the NY Times article asserted that it was perhaps just being used as a placeholder in sentences to give them more substance. Other hypotheses include the word being used as a means for the speaker to express empathy to the listener. No matter the case, when 'so' is being used as anything other than a conjunction, it seems like it's occurrence is superfluous.

The usage of the word 'so' reminds me of the use of 'like' as a placeholder. The word 'like' is added unnecessarily into innumerable sentences. Listening to my own speech is embarassing at times because only when I actively listen can I hear the number of times I use the word for no apparent reason. It makes my language seem so much less intellingent and interrupts the flow of whatever statement I am making. This usage of the word 'like' is definitely something I would like to stem. It makes me sound like a pre-teen drama queen speaking like a valley girl.

I think that there is one thing to be said for the casual use of language. Of course not every situation requires a formal use of speech, especially in this age of texting and social media. Nevertheless, there should be some standards. I don't think that the Secretary of State should be starting her sentences with the word 'so,' just as she would strive to prevent her sentences from beginning with 'uh' or 'um.' Overall though, this usage of the word is not the be all, end all as the author of this article reacted. Language is constantly evolving, so perhaps the usage of 'so' will truly no longer be used as simply a conjunction. Who knows? For the meantime though, I hope that our public officials wait for this usage to become widely accepted as grammatically correct.

http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/22/us/22iht-currents.html

Language Barriers in Healthcare

Speaking a different language from that of your doctor is a very scary thing. Medicine itself is mystery enough with all of its terminology and lingo. While it's often hard to understand what's going on with your body in the first place, imagine if you couldn't even talk to your doctor. This is a very vulnerable and scary situation and it is one that many people face on a daily basis, around the world.

The inability to talk to your doctor can cause many problems. For example, in England a German doctor working for the National Health Service misunderstood a British patient because the doctor did not speak proficient English. The patient ended up dying. The NHS is now working to ensure that all doctors prove their English proficiency, whether or not they are members of the EU. This is an important step because it has the potential to prevent many similar mishaps that seem to be common occurrences.

Clearly language barriers in healthcare have devastating results. They also exist in the United States. It is estimated that there are over 50 million people living in the US who are deemed to have limited English-language proficiency. These are people that would require medical translators. But medical translators are often unavailable. These are people who are trained in medical terminology, but also understand colloquial terms and are thus able to properly convey the sentiments and symptoms of the patient to the doctor and vice versa. Since these trained professionals are often unavailable many people must rely on the inexact translation of family members, or simply make do with the little information that can be communicated across the gap when no help is available.

I think that we should work to encourage bilingual healthcare workers in the United States because clearly this language divide between healthcare workers and patients can have dire consequences. Doctors and nurses fluent in both English and Spanish could make a great positive impact on this problem. Clearly we can't plan ahead and have translators for every language in every hospital, but I think it is important that as a society we make this a priority for this is a part of giving people the access to the care they both need and deserve and to make that things literally aren't lost in translation.

I can only imagine how vulnerable these people must feel, hoping and praying that their doctors and understanding what is going on with them. There has to be a level of distrust involved in these communications, whether there is a translator or not, because you want to know that your doctor is hearing exactly what you said. I hope that as a society we can strive to provide better care in this manner, as well as the many others we are discussing in our law making bodies.

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/health/healthnews/7746190/Foreign-doctors-and-nurses-have-to-pass-tough-language-tests-to-work-in-NHS.html

http://www.commonwealthfund.org/Content/Publications/In-the-Literature/2008/Jan/Language-Barriers-in-Health-Care--Special-Supplement-to-the-Journal-of-General-Internal-Medicine.aspx

http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos175.htm

The Na'vi Language

Who knew that an alien language sensation could be created by a movie? Well, that is exactly what the blockbuster Avatar has done. The Na'vi language was created by Professor Paul Frommer from the University of Southern California linguistics department explicitly for the movie. About five years ago he signed on to the Avatar team and built the language from the ground up, drawing influence from an innumerable number of languages. He combined these many influences to create what is now known as Na'vi, the native language of the planet Pandora.

Within 24 hours of the release of the movie fans were starting to learn the Na'vi language and already asking for more. It is estimated that 12,000 people are currently trying to learn the language and more and more fans are beginning each day. Fan sites where they discuss grammar and syntax. There is even a Na'vi-English dictionary that contains about 500 words, but fans are pleading for more. Frommer is willing to help, but is waiting for the go ahead from Fox who has thus far remained quiet on the subject. Fans have been able to take the language farther using grammatical structures and more, but they want to make sure that they are speaking the true Na'vi language, not something they've simply made up. This is why they're begging for anything they can get their hands on.

I think it's ridiculous that movie fans have become so obsessive that they've started learning this language. There is no real world application of Na'vi, and this time and energy spent learning it could be used to study Spanish, or another language that has a practical application. In particular I think that this is wasted energy because there are any number of languages that are currently dying out. Perhaps we should try to preserve these languages instead. Perhaps the draw of the Pandoran language is that it is exclusive. But, going along with this logic, the languages that are dying out should also be desirable because they, too are exclusive.

I think this obsession is a manifestation of our society's preoccupation with Hollywood and pop culture. It goes right along with the glamor and status of movie stars that Americans are so concerned with, so it does not surprise me that the majority of Na'vi language learners are Americans. I think the passion these people display is great, but these men and women should move on and learn a language that has an authentic meaning- one that wasn't simply created for a movie.

http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/movies/avatars-blue-language-on-the-rise-20100514-v45z.html?autostart=1

http://www.learnnavi.org/

http://www.slate.com/id/2248683

Music and the Deaf: What One Man is Doing About It

One of the things that we all love is music. I can't imagine what it would be like to be deaf because not only would I be able to hear the voices of my family and friends, but I wouldn't be able to enjoy the music I so dearly love. I'm even listening to it right now as I type. But someone is trying to change this.

Sean Forbes is a man who has been 90% death since birth, but in 2006 decided to cofound the Deaf Professional Arts Network (D-Pan). D-Pan creates music videos of popular songs for the deaf in which actors and actresses sign to the lyrics. The latest is that he just signed a major record deal with Web Entertainment, the same company who signed Eminem. Forbes has always been interested in music, he is capable of hearing the low-end vibrations of hip hop and as a result learned how to play the drums. While at first he was reproducing the music of other groups to give access to the deaf community, Forbes also has a great talent for creating his own music. He was just awarded this recognition and will be touring this summer with the cowriter of some of his music.

I was very surprised when I read this article. I wasn't quite sure what the purpose of D-Pan was, or how it worked. Then I watched some of Forbes' music videos and understood completely. He uses subtitles, signing, and images of rhythmic movement, such as drums, to convey the lyrics and beat of the music. I was surprised by the effect. I listened to some songs with no sound. Of course it wasn't the same, especially considering I don't know sign language, but it was interesting to see.

I think it is great that sign language is getting more recognition in a world that is so focused on sound. Sign language definitely does not receive adequate recognition, so this was a refreshing article to read. I think it is important that as a society we encourage all types of diversity, including language diversity. Still, there is so much emphasis on spoken languages that we seem to have all but forgotten sign language. I think this is a good reminder that music and art comes in all different forms, and so does language. I hope that Sean Forbes does really well in his music career, for this is definitely something that should be encouraged.

http://www.freep.com/article/20100516/ENT04/5160321/Deaf-musician-Sean-Forbes-lands-major-recording-deal

http://www.d-pan.org/

Americans and Their Movies

Of late, fewer and fewer Americans are going to see foreign films. While foreign films made up 10% of the U.S. box office in the 60s, they now make up about 0.75% of the American box office. There has been a sharp decline over the years, particularly in the last decade. Perhaps because of this great decline in attendance, fewer and fewer films are even making it into the American market. They once were the primary genre shown at art cinemas, but now even these movie theaters are showing a great decline in the screening of foreign films.

This decline has resulted in a great disparity in the exchange of culture. We are spreading the American way of life throughout the world through American produced movies, but we are rarely exposed to other cultures as a result of this lack of foreign movies.

There are numerous hypotheses about the cause of this steep decline. Some think that Americans just don't like reading subtitles. This is hard to imagine though, because Avatar had the greatest box office profits in history and great portions of it were subtitled. Other examples of successful subtitled movies include Slumdog Millionaire and Inglourious Basterds. Others say that the foreign films just aren't there- there aren't enough, and the ones that do break into the market just aren't good.

I think that the major problem is that Americans don't want to learn about other cultures and foreign films are literally too foreign for them. They seem inaccessible to such an narcissistic culture that values the English language far and above all others. We consider ourselves to be the center of the universe, after our status as the world power, so why would we need movies from anywhere else? In general, we are not very accepting of other cultures, as made obvious by our treatment of immigrants. There is a great fear of everything we consider to be "other," and I think this definitely extents to our views of foreign films. I think this is the reason that attendance has dropped so drastically.

Another reason is perhaps that we've gotten used to all the smoke and mirrors of Hollywood. Billions of dollars go into the moviemaking business with unlimited special effects and this is what often hooks many potential viewers. They want to be wowed by the newest technology, regardless of the plot line. Foreign films, on the other hand, are much lower budget and usually have a higher message. I think this is too deep for many Americans who just want to go to the movies and let the pretty pictures wash over them. Not as many people are interested in a thought provoking performance, and this is one of the great benefits of many foreign films.

Either way, no matter the reason, it is a shame that Americans are closing their minds to the great influence of foreign films. I think there is much to learn and a great deal of insight to gain from these movies.

http://www.philly.com/inquirer/entertainment/20100509_Americans_are_seeing_fewer_and_fewer_foreign_films.html?viewAll=y

Accents and Learning

The state of Arizona recently decided to test and evaluate all teachers on their English fluency. Those who are deemed to have thick accents, incomplete fluency, or who speak ungrammatically are going to be removed from classrooms in which students are still learning to speak English. The idea is that students learn what they hear and Arizona does not want its students learning accented or improper English. There are many controversies involved because even to begin with it is difficult to define fluency. Also, many of these teachers are experienced educators. Many people feel that this is another manifestation of the prejudices that exist against immigrant populations in the United States.

In another article from the Washington Post, Valerie Strauss writes about a study done in Israel that found that students learning a language learn best when taught by someone with the same first language, and thus the same accent. It turns out that these results apply to all learning, not just in language. The study showed that it often takes too much energy for a student to try to understand the foreign accent of the teacher and then have to learn the material in addition. This is a lot for a student to process at one time.

This study completely refutes the premise of Arizona's new language learning initiative. The majority of the teachers instructing language learning classes in Arizona are Hispanic and are teaching Hispanic students. Thus, they have the same accent and presumably this will be the easiest way for them to learn in the classroom.

I have definitely experienced this throughout my primary education. Several times I had math teachers who were native Mandarin speakers. It was often difficult to understand their accents. I always had to make an extra effort to understand what they were saying even before I considered the material being taught. It just added an extra level of concentration and effort that otherwise is unnecessary. In this respect I feel that my personal experience matches up with the results of the study.

I think it is clear that Arizona is making a mistake. The lawmakers should definitely look at this study before they implement these new measures to "safeguard" the learning of their English language learners. Clearly their aim is to help students be as successful as possible in the classroom. This is an admirable goal, but the state of Arizona should reevaluate their methods to make sure that they are truly working to accomplish the goal they have set forth. Otherwise, particularly under these new mandates, many well qualified teachers could be pushed out of their jobs for no reason, while in fact they are the best equipped to teach this student population.

http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703572504575213883276427528.html?mod=WSJ_WSJ_US_News_5

http://voices.washingtonpost.com/answer-sheet/learning/accented-teachers-may-be-bette.html

Are bad words appropriate now?

It certainly seems so from politics and the media. There are innumerable examples of words that are widely used today that once were thought to be very much off limits. One of the more tame examples is the word ass. Once it was very taboo to use any questionable language in everyday conversation. Now we're at the point where Dick Cheney tells a senator to "go f--- himself" on the floor of the senate. The language is often used in songs and heard on the radio and is commonplace in the movies and on TV. Print media is a bit more conscious of its use. Still, we are bombarded nonstop by this coarse language. But is it okay?

There were many contributors to the article I read, and it seemed that the consensus is that our use of language today is just more informal as a result of the overall diminished formality of our culture in general. The fact that these words are deemed appropriate is a trickle down affect from our less formal culture. Also, as many said, there have always been words that have been considered tasteless. Standards change. They are constantly changing, and these were the same questions that were being asked a hundred years ago. The words in question were just different.

I agree with the contributors of the article that this is just a cyclical phenomenon. There have always been certain words and customs that have been considered risque. This is always the case. In this sense, nothing is new. We've always been asking these same questions. Still, I understand why there is some concern. These bad words have become so pervasive in our culture, it's hard not to question their necessity at times.

In general, I think this is similar to my opinion about teenagers' use of language and their informalities in texting and on the internet. I believe that there is a time and place for everything. I don't think it's appropriate for the vice president of the US to tell someone to "go f--- himself." This is uncalled for. I understand that he, too, is a person. Clearly he felt very strongly about his position and got caught up in the debate. Still, he holds a top level, official position in our government and the eyes and the ears of the world are focused on him. For this reason I believe that his actions were uncalled for.

The use of language in entertainment is another matter entirely. I don't have a problem with "bad" words being used in movies or on TV, we just have to take into account the audience. These words have become commonplace in our everyday lives, and I don't think it would be authentic to completely cut them from these representations and icons of our culture. The same goes for music, though music is a bit more difficult to regulate.

Language is constantly changing, and I think this is simply yet another example. I think the use of crude language is sometimes taken to an inappropriate extreme, but in general I view this as a natural evolution of the English language. Changes are bound to occur and I think this is one of the many inevitable changes that it will undergo.

http://www.mercurynews.com/top-stories/ci_14994647?nclick_check=1

Differences in Bible Translations

The following passages are excerpts from the first book, Genesis, of the Old Testament of the Bible. But the passages are different. This is because they come from different translations of the Bible. The first is from the VTI Bible, while the second is from the Catholic Bible. By looking at the two translations we can see the differences in the language used and analyze them to see if they have the same or different meanings. The significance of this analysis is to see if translation changes meaning and to see how the same passage can be interpreted differently based on the way it was translated.

VTI Bible

1. In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth.

2. Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters.

3. And God said, “Let there be light,” and there was light.

4. God saw that the light was good, and he separated the light from the darkness.

5. God called the light “day,” and the darkness he called “night.” And there was evening, and there was morning-the first day.

Catholic Bible

1. In the beginning God created heaven and earth.

2. Now the earth was a formless void, there was darkness over the deep, with a divine wind sweeping over the waters.

3. God said, ‘Let there be light,’ and there was light.

4. God saw that light was good, and God divided light from darkness.

5. God called light ‘day’, and darkness he called ‘night’. Evening came and morning came: the first day.

One big difference between the two versions is that in the second verse the Catholic Bible says there is a divine wind hovering over the waters. This is referred to as the Spirit of God in the VTI Bible. A divine wind and the Spirit of God are two very different things. The Spirit of God, or Holy Spirit, is part of the trinity of God- the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. By saying a ‘divine wind’ we do not necessarily get this same understanding. Perhaps this was a wind directed by God. The meaning is unclear and could be any number of things. In this sense the VTI translation is much more specific. Also, the word void is much stronger than the word empty. Void makes me think of a black hole.

In the beginning of the third verse the VTI Bible has the word ‘and.’ This seems to imply that God’s statement is additional or secondary. In the Catholic Bible the verse simply says that God said, “Let there be light.” This makes the statement more profound because it stands alone. It is by itself, thus giving it more weight.

Verse 4 of the Catholic Bible truly emphasizes the actions of God by repeating ‘God’ twice, rather than referring to him the second time as ‘he,’ as in the VTI translation. Also, the Catholic Bible states that the light and darkness were divided from one another. This is a much stronger verb than the verb separated, as is used in the first translation.

I find the fifth verse of the Catholic Bible to be much smoother and easier to understand. The fact that evening and morning came makes it seem like much more of an event, verses a passive occurrence. In the VTI translation there is just a sense that they are now in existence.

I found the Catholic Bible to be much clearer and concise, besides the part in the second verse that talks about the ‘divine wind.’ Otherwise, the Catholic Bible uses stronger, more active language than the VTI Bible. I think this is of great significance because this passage comes from the very beginning of the Bible, the book on which Christianity is based.

What are those young people talking about?

I read several articles about the language use among today's adolescents. It's hot topic. And it completely puzzles and frustrates older generations. The first article was about the ways adolescents communicate online through social networking websites such as Facebook. The article asserted that teenagers are creating a new language to keep secrets from adults. It says they have created this language in order to talk about alcohol, drugs, and parties without their parents knowing. This language goes beyond simple abbreviations. Many teenagers are purposefully spelling words in a creative manner in order to keep their actions private.

The other article was a blog post on the Huffington Post website in which John Brown, a professor at Georgetown, stated that America's dirty little secret is that many young people simply can't speak. Their conversations are continuously peppered with words such as "like" and "whatever." He contends that there are most likely multiple reasons for the disappearance of the use of proper English among the young. There isn't much emphasis on rhetoric nowadays, and we live in a world that has become dependent upon technology such as texting and instant messaging in which abbreviations are common and acceptable. This new form of colloquial language is quickly taking over.

In both articles these vast language changes stem, at least in part, from advances in technology. Sure, often times we talk about how one language is being affecting by other languages, but clearly technology also has a great impact on language. And the youth are heading the charge. This shows how much power young generations have on language and how it evolves over time, for the better or the worse.

I agree that many of us need to steer away from frequent use of "like" and "whatever." Occasionally I catch myself overusing these words and I am horrified by the way I sound. It's hard to sound intelligent or serious when you are constantly saying them. They seem to automatically take away from whatever information you are trying to convey. We should definitely work on removing these fillers from conversation because they are superfluous and can only detract. It's not that all influences from Facebook and texting are bad, it's just that we need to know when it is appropriate to use our different levels of communication. We need to know when to flip the switch. Among friends it doesn't matter if every other word is "like," but in academic and formal settings conventional English is proper. As long as this distinction is made I don't think there is an issue with our language use today. I think it's awesome that teenagers are creating their own language. It's cool, though it proves inconvenient for parents. Everyone just needs to understand the difference between proper, conventional English and our own little idiosyncratic ways of speaking.

Sources:

http://www.huffingtonpost.com/john-brown/like-it-or-not-americas-d_b_550981.html

http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/facebook/7632133/Facebook-speak-Teenagers-create-secret-online-language.html

Language in School: Do students really learn?

I read an opinion piece from the Washington Post, written by a man named Jay Mathews. Mathews was debating whether or not it is useful to offer language classes in high school. While he stated that learning a second language is clearly a useful skill to have, most people take language classes in high school because it's a requirement, not because they actually want to learn. They take a second language to get in to college or to fulfull language requirements for graduation, but all they're really worried about is the grade, not the knowledge that they gain. And do they even really learn that much? Still, these programs are expensive to maintain and they may not be actually doing any good.

I agree that many students only take a foreign language in school because it is some sort of requirement. They aren't necessarily taking the class out of pure curiosity or interest. Because students are often only worried about the grade many don't retain much of their language acquisition after the class ends. This may seem like a waste because then the question is why are we spending all of this money to teach kids something that they aren't going to use or remember?

I must say that my own experience falls somewhere along these lines. My experience is different in that I was always interested in learning Spanish, and that is why I continued taking language classes long after my requirement had been fulfilled. Still, while I would say I demonstrated a commitment to learning the language, I must admit that I feel I've lost a lot of what I learned. I'm not sure how much Spanish I actually remember or am capable of using today. This is somewhat distressing because I think of all the years I studied trying to gain proficiency.

While I may have lost some of my ability to speak Spanish, I still think it was definitely a worthwhile experience. I think it is invaluable to have this exposure to a new language and thus a new culture. This exposure helps to foster understanding and empathy for people around the world and allows us to see things in new ways. For these reasons alone I think that foreign language departments are invaluable.

Also, when you think about it, there are many other subjects taught in school that you will never remember or use again, just as with a foreign language. Yet we still place great emphasis on these subjects, including calculus and chemistry. Honestly, the average person is not going to use their understanding of the periodic table or derivatives on a daily basis. Still, we consider these subjects to be of great importance. We consider this type of exposure to be key in the development of a student, thus why should language exposure be of any less merit?

http://voices.washingtonpost.com/class-struggle/2010/04/why_waste_time_on_a_foreign_la.html

The Communication Gap Between Boys and Girls

An article in the Vancouver Sun reports that boys are lagging behind girls in communication skills and that this is having a profound effect on their success throughout life. In the primary years, girls are better at communication than boys. This was not an issue earlier because the gap was closed by fourth or fifth grade, but now language requirements are more stringent earlier on in school. Boys no longer have the opportunity to catch up and start off behind. From this predisposed disadvantage they never have a chance to recover.

The repercussions are extreme. Boys do worse in school and then lose interest. School becomes something for girls. Thus, fewer boys are graduating from college. In fact, only 39% of the students graduating from college in Canada are male. This breakdown between men and women was even only a generation ago. Particularly in today's society, having a college degree is imperative. It is now a basic requirement for most jobs, just as the standard used to be a high school degree. Not only does this unabridged communication gap make it more difficult for men to express themselves in everyday life, but not it is also more difficult them to even enter the workplace.

This lack in the facility of language use has a very extreme effect. It demonstrates the importance in our ability to express ourselves. These are skills that can be cultivated, and clearly they are skills that need to be taught. The repercussions extend even farther in that it is then more difficult for men to get married because most women don't want to marry down in education level.

These effects are very dramatic on many personal levels for men. They all stem from the fact that boys are no longer receiving the time they need to develop these skills. They start off at a disadvantage that they never have time to recover. With school becoming more and more language focused, even math is taught with more and more word problems, boys don't even have a chance. This is something that needs to change. For everyone's sake.

I found this topic to be extremely interesting. It reminded me of one of the situations from Malcolm Gladwell's book Outliers. One chapter spoke about the hockey league and that cuts are made every February as to which boys should move up to the next level. As it turns out, the boys with birthdays closest to the cut-off date are much more likely to move up in level because they are the oldest and thus the biggest. As a result, though they may have no more talent, at least initially, they receive the most coaching and training because they appear to have more promise. Slowly they do get better than their younger peers just because they are given more attention and direction. It's a sort of self-fulfilling prophesy. This is what is happening with boys and the educational system. Clearly it is something that needs to change.

Language Differences Create Vulnerability

Language barriers are apt to make people feel vulnerable, especially in difficult situations. We briefly discussed this topic in class in relation to medical care. When the doctor speaks a different language, it's often hard to feel secure because you have to use a translator. Communication between health care professionals and patients and families is difficult enough to begin with because this relationship is so unique. Doctors have all the knowledge about what is going on in these scary, often life threatening situations, and patients and families often feel powerless. Language differences only make these interactions even more complicated.

In addition to health related situations, education is also a difficult subject, made harder by differences in language. These were the sentiments expressed by an article I read about language barriers in schools between parents and school administrators. It is a complicated matter for non english speaking parents to navigate the US school systems. This is particularly the case for the parents of children with learning disabilities. They don't know how to ensure that their children are receiving the best education possible and all the help they need. In some places, such as school districts in Florida, there are liaisons to help with the transition into American schools for these children, many of whom have never attended school. These liaisons act as translators between the parents and the school in order to ensure that everyone has the same understanding of the needs of the child. They explain the education system and act as a go-between so that the child receives all the necessary help.

I can only imagine how vulnerable these parents must feel. In situations with translators there is always the possibility that some information is getting lost. This is particularly a scary notion when it comes to important topics such as healthcare and education. A person wants to know that they are receiving all of the information necessary to make an informed decision in whatever the situation, especially when these decisions have potentially life altering effects. This demonstrates the importance of these academic liaisons in schools. Children who need special education are already at a disadvantage in the school system. Those whose parents who can't speak English to understand this most definitely need the help of a translator who understands this impact in order to ensure that the child in question is receiving the best education the school can give them.

Language Purity

Never before had I really considered the fact that a language can be "polluted," in a sense, by other languages. The thought had never occurred to me until it came up in class in reference to the French. Then I saw this article about the Chinese government banning the use of English acronyms such as GDP and MBA from their television broadcasts. The acronyms are supposed to be replaced with what are most often much lengthier explanations in Chinese. I find this new rule to be surprising on multiple accounts.

First of all, China is most definitely a world power. But it is also a huge language power simply based on the sheer number of people who speak it. (As an aside, the article did not specify whether it was referring to Mandarin or Cantonese. I looked up the two languages and discovered that Mandarin is the official language of China and is used in most schools, universities, and television programming.) It seems like, as a result of this language prowess, the Chinese government would be less concerned about the occasional use of English acronyms in television programs. The other thing is that I'm surprised that these acronyms are considered to be of such great import. I don't really understand how they have a big impact on the overall integrity of the Chinese language.

As we discussed in class the other day, the French are also very strict about the use of English words in their language. They even have a whole governmental commission whose purpose is to invent French words for these English counterparts. They are clearly very controlling about the use of their language. This seems a little bit more reasonable to me because French seems to be a language with a little less vitality, just considering it's use is much less common.

Unsurprisingly, this control of language in France extends beyond the use of English acronyms. I went to France this summer with my family and noticed that they play a lot of American music on their radio stations. Actually, the majority of the music was American. But occasionally you'd hear a French version of a song and they played some music by French artists. As it turns out, France actually has a law that states that a certain percentage of a radio station's music must be in French. By law, they are not allowed to have a completely English radio station. At least 40% of the music must be by French artists. This poses a problem for some radio stations when there is not enough French music of a certain genre being produced in France. The appeal to the listeners can decrease because then stations must replay the same French songs over and over again.

I find the subject of language purity fascinating. I understand why many languages with smaller populations of speakers are concerned about pollution from English. Still, why is China so worried? Are there other language powers who are implementing similar measures?

http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2010/04/07/fyi-to-cctv-no-english-acronyms/

http://khuang.com/chinese/dif.htm

http://www.nytimes.com/1996/04/20/business/worldbusiness/20iht-radio.t_1.html?pagewanted=1

Dual Language Classes

Recently, there have been a lot of articles published about the opening of dual language classes in elementary schools in different parts of California. The aim is to teach kids to be bilingual in english and spanish. The bilingual classes begin in kindergarten and are eventually spread up through the grades of the elementary school. Class is taught in spanish one day and in english the next, constantly alternating between the two and building on what was taught the day before. Data shows that after 5 to 6 years of this teaching style, these students do better in school than their peers in monolingual classes.

I think that teaching classes in both english and spanish is a great idea, especially considering it begins at such a young age. While it would undoubtedly be confusing initially, I think that clear benefits abound. As we all know, the number of spanish speakers in our country is growing exponentially, especially in states such as California. It has become more and more crucial in many professions to speak spanish, and the importance of this skill will only increase with time, eventually becoming a necessity.

It seems that this approach to language learning is very affective, much more so than the traditional method used in schools. Most of us didn't start to learn a second language in earnest until middle school. At this point language classes are then only for perhaps an hour, several times a week. This is the language education I received, and I feel no where near fluent in spanish. Though I continued in high school, and now in college, I still have great strides to make in order to approach fluency.

Obviously one of the best ways to learn a language is to be immersed in it. This is one of the reasons I want to study abroad in Madrid. In addition, the general consensus is that it is easiest to learn a language at a young age. Dual language classes of this sort address both of these issues. Not only are kids being exposed to spanish for extended periods of time, they are also getting this exposure when they are young, before they know of any other kind of learning. This combination seems bound for success for both reasons.

It has also been shown to work in many other school districts, such as in Texas and some areas of Washington. I am curious to hear about how the new type of learning goes in Modesto, California and am sure that it too will have a positive outcome. From other sources I read that the parents are thrilled about the prospect and this in itself gives a positive outlook on the new teaching style. When parents are enthusiastic and involved, this can only mean good things for schools.

http://www.modbee.com/2010/04/05/1115018/dual-language-classes-on-the-way.html

Countries I've Visited

Thanks to: http://www.world66.com/myworld66/visitedCountries

Introduction

Hi, my name's Kit and I'm a freshman at Stanford University. I am from Washington, D.C. and my favorite color is purple. I am a rower on the Stanford lightweight crew team. I love to bake, read, and hang out with friends. I like having dance parties.

I am currently taking a class called Language and Society. I was interested in taking this class because I am fascinated by the idea that language influences the way we think. I have been taking spanish since 7th grade and I have been forced to think in a completely different way. Not only are the words themselves different, but so is the way they are used. The sentences are structured completely different manners and there are so many nuances. While I have been learning spanish for a long time, I am still not fluent. I am still learning to think in this other language. I am still learning how to speak because while I know a lot of vocabulary, you can't literally translate from one language to another. The meaning isn't the same. You have to learn to think in a new way in order to speak like a native speaker.

I am also interested in this class because I want to become a doctor and laguage the ways in which it is used is of the utmost importance in medicine. I want to work abroad, helping underserved, impoverished populations who will speak many other languages and in order to understand and help them, I think it is important to understand the way language affects their lives.

I think it is very important to understand the connections between languages and the cultural and societal implications of the vast differences in languages in order for us to understand other people. Language is so integral to our lives and affects us in innumerable ways. For these reasons I think the topic of this class is critical.